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RWA Tokenization Technology Analysis: What Are the Current Solutions?
Original Title: "Technical Analysis of Real World Asset (RWA) Tokenization Mechanism"
Original Source: Aquarius
Tokenized Real World Assets (RWAs) are digital tokens recorded on the blockchain, representing ownership or legal rights to physical or intangible assets. The scope of tokenization covers a wide range of asset classes, including real estate (residential, commercial properties, and Real Estate Investment Trusts REITs), commodities (gold, silver, oil, and agricultural products), art and collectibles (high-value art pieces, rare stamps, and vintage wines), intellectual property (patents, trademarks, and copyrights), and financial instruments (bonds, mortgages, and insurance policies).
By enabling fractional ownership, tokenization enhances asset liquidity, making investment opportunities that were once exclusive to high-net-worth individuals and institutional investors more accessible to the general public. The blockchain's immutable ledger ensures transparent ownership records, reducing fraud risks; simultaneously, tokenized assets traded on decentralized exchanges bring unprecedented market accessibility and efficiency.
According to McKinsey's analysis, it is estimated that by 2030, the total market value of various tokenized assets (excluding cryptocurrencies and stablecoins) will reach around $20 trillion, with a pessimistic scenario of $10 trillion and an optimistic scenario of $40 trillion. These estimates do not include stablecoins (including tokenized deposits, wholesale stablecoins, and Central Bank Digital Currencies CBDCs) to avoid double counting, as these instruments are commonly used as cash payment tools in tokenized asset transactions.
Current System
Tokenization of real-world assets refers to representing off-chain assets' ownership in digital token form through blockchain or similar distributed ledger. This process links the asset's characteristics, ownership, and value to its digital form. Tokens, as digital holding instruments, enable their holders to claim ownership of the underlying assets.
Historically, physical ownership certificates were used to prove asset ownership. While useful, these certificates were vulnerable to theft, loss, forgery, and money laundering threats. In the 1980s, digital holding instruments emerged as a potential solution. However, limited by the computing power and encryption technology of that time, these tools were not realized. Instead, the financial industry turned to centralized electronic registry systems to record digital assets. Although these paperless assets brought some efficiency gains, their centralized nature required the involvement of multiple intermediaries, introducing new costs and inefficiencies.
System Based on Distributed Ledger Technology
The development of Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) has made it possible to reconsider the concept of digitally holding securities or tokens.
DLT consists of a series of protocols and frameworks that allow computers to propose and validate transactions on a network while maintaining the synchronicity of records. By storing records in a decentralized manner, this technology shifts responsibility away from a single central authority. Such decentralization reduces administrative burdens, minimizes the risk of system failures associated with reliance on a central entity, making the system more resilient (see Figure 1).
These diagrams compare the transaction flow between traditional systems and DLT-based systems. Figure 1 illustrates how multiple intermediaries in the current system handle transaction execution, clearing, and settlement. Figure 2 shows how DLT-based systems streamline these processes through a single consensus mechanism.
Decentralized Solutions
Blockchain is a type of Distributed Ledger Technology that operates through a decentralized computer network. Tokens can be issued on two types of blockchains: private permissioned chains and public permissionless chains.
Private permissioned chains (e.g., Ripple) are controlled by a single entity and restrict access to specific users, creating a controlled ecosystem. Public permissionless chains (e.g., Ethereum), on the other hand, do not require central authority control and provide open access to all users. When tokens are issued on public permissionless chains, they can integrate with decentralized finance (DeFi) protocols (such as decentralized exchanges), enhancing their utility and value.
The choice of blockchain—whether in a private controlled environment or a public open network—determines the level of control the issuer can maintain over the tokens. Compared to private permissioned chains, public permissionless chains give the issuer less control. The choice of blockchain architecture should align with the issuer's goals and the expected functionality of the tokens.
A key advantage of asset tokenization is the automation achieved through smart contracts. Smart contracts are programs on the blockchain that execute when specific conditions are met. These contracts automate financial transactions and administrative tasks, reducing the need for manual work and intermediaries. By eliminating counterparty risk, this automation makes operations more efficient and secure, enabling faster and lower-cost transfers.
Tokenization Approaches
The tokenization of real-world assets has traditionally been approached with a simple binary classification: an asset is either tokenized or it is not. However, as we enter the era of digital assets, this overly simplistic view no longer applies. A more nuanced way is to analyze assets through two key attributes: their form and ownership.
The form includes the asset's economic characteristics—its function, underlying asset, maturity date, and interest rate. Additionally, ownership validation requires a ledger, which can be off-chain or on-chain. Off-chain assets maintain their rights and form through physical certificates (such as holding a bond) or dematerialized form (such as electronic record of shares), all operating within a legal framework. On the other hand, on-chain assets exist in a digitally enhanced or digitally native form, managed by a blockchain's consensus mechanism.
Understanding the difference between digitally enhanced assets and digitally native assets is crucial. Digitally enhanced (or enhanced) assets maintain ownership through an off-chain ledger as their custody layer while using blockchain tokens as the digital form. For example, ownership of a stock may exist in an electronic ledger but is tokenized on a blockchain to enhance its functionality. In contrast, digitally native assets (such as cryptocurrencies) are inherently digital, with tokens directly representing value and ownership. This means that while a token of a digitally enhanced asset provides a claim to ownership from an off-chain ledger, a token of a digitally native asset directly represents ownership without relying on any off-chain components.
Building on an understanding of asset types and tokenization, we can further explore four tokenization approaches. The differences in these approaches lie in the direct relationship between the token and its underlying asset. Next, we will systematically discuss each approach, from the most direct relationship between token and asset to the least direct relationship.
· Direct Ownership: In this approach, the digital token itself acts as the official ownership record, eliminating the need for a custodian. This method is applicable only to digitally native assets (see Figure 2). The system uses a single ledger (potentially a distributed ledger) to record token ownership. For instance, rather than issuing tokens supported by a share registry system, it is more direct to tokenize the registry system itself, making the token the actual ownership record. This streamlined approach eliminates the need for custodians or redundant registries. While this method can leverage a distributed ledger, the registry system itself does not necessarily need to be distributed. However, the legal frameworks for most asset classes under this tokenization method are still limited, and the regulatory structures are not yet mature.
· 1:1 Asset-Backed Tokens: In this approach, a custodian holds the asset and issues tokens representing a direct interest in that underlying asset. Each token can be redeemed for the actual asset or its cash equivalent. For example, a financial institution can issue bond tokens based on bonds held in a trust account, or a commercial bank can issue stablecoin tokens backed one-to-one by commercial bank currency in a dedicated account.
· Collateralized Tokens: This method issues asset-backed tokens using assets that differ from the expected representation of the asset or related equity as collateral. Typically, to mitigate the fluctuation in collateral asset value relative to the expected token asset value, the token is over-collateralized. For example, the stablecoin Tether is backed not only by cash but also by a range of other assets (such as fixed-income securities). Similarly, one could create a government bond token backed by commercial bank bonds or a stock token backed by an over-collateralized basket of related stocks.
· Under-collateralized Tokens: Tokens issued using this method are designed to track the value of an asset but are not fully collateralized. Similar to a fractional reserve banking system, maintaining the token's value requires managing a partial reserve asset portfolio actively and engaging in open-market operations. This is a form of high-risk asset tokenization, with historical cases of failures. For example, the collapsed Terra/Luna stablecoin was not independently asset-backed but relied on an algorithmic stabilization through a supply control algorithm. Other less risky partially collateralized tokens have also been issued.
Why Choose Tokenization
The tokenization of real-world assets primarily leverages Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) to achieve efficiency gains. This technology enhances transparency, automates processes, reduces operational costs, eliminates intermediaries, and counterparty risks. Compared to traditional financial systems, these advantages are realized through a streamlined and agile market infrastructure, resulting in faster settlements and cost savings.
· Atomic Settlement
The combination of Distributed Ledger Technology with tokenized assets introduces the concept of atomic settlement. Currently, settlements mainly occur through central counterparties, and the prevalent securities settlement mode is the rolling settlement cycle. In this mode, although transactions are executed on a specific day, the actual settlement (transferring ownership according to the agreed protocol) often takes one to three more days to complete. This involves two legs or transfers: the delivery leg, transferring ownership of securities from the seller to the buyer, and the payment leg, transferring cash from the buyer to the seller. Atomic settlement is achieved through smart contracts, where the programmable code simultaneously executes both legs of the transaction or does not execute at all if the predetermined conditions are not met. This method eliminates counterparty risk while significantly enhancing transaction speed and efficiency. Moreover, conducting trade settlement through smart contracts eliminates the need for collateral since there is no risk of delivery failure and subsequent trade reconciliation, thereby freeing up collateralized funds and indirectly boosting market liquidity.
· Increased Liquidity
Tokenization has significantly enhanced the transferability of assets, making previously illiquid assets tradable. For example, traditional real estate transactions face significant barriers such as high transaction costs, complex legal processes, and inherent illiquidity. These barriers, coupled with each property's unique attributes (such as location, condition, legal status), make trading individual properties like stocks or bonds on a public exchange impractical. Tokenization addresses these challenges through smart contracts, which optimize the transaction process by eliminating intermediaries, streamlining ownership transfers, and automating compliance checks, thus significantly reducing transaction costs. The same benefits apply to other traditionally illiquid assets such as art, collectibles, infrastructure projects, and private equity shares. Additionally, tokenization has enabled new distributed markets through Automated Market Makers (AMMs). These systems automatically match buyers and sellers through asset pools managed by smart contracts, providing continuous liquidity. Unlike traditional markets with fixed trading hours, these blockchain-based systems operate 24/7. Higher accessibility is further enhanced through fractional ownership, lower investment thresholds, and simplified transaction processes.
· Reduction in Intermediation
The decentralized data structure allows smart contracts integrated on the blockchain to replace traditional intermediaries in data verification. Smart contracts can also replace Central Securities Depositories (CSDs), automating processes such as asset ownership transfers, dividend payments, and interest distributions.
· Enabling Automation
One of the key advantages of asset tokenization is enabling automation through smart contracts. Smart contracts are programmable code deployed on the blockchain that automatically execute when predetermined conditions are met. Smart contracts can streamline many manual tasks, especially in industries like insurance. For example, they can automate policy issuance and claims payments. In case of flight delays or cancellations, smart contracts can automatically trigger travel insurance payouts without manual intervention. The effectiveness of such automation largely depends on integrated and real-time monitoring of relevant data. Third-party services known as "oracles" provide external data to smart contracts, serving as a bridge between the blockchain and the outside world since smart contracts cannot access external data directly. Automation is most feasible in asset classes that are data quantifiable, standardized, and reliably obtainable through oracles. Stocks, bonds, and derivatives are prime examples as their market data is readily available and easily integratable into smart contracts. However, in industries where data subjectivity is high or difficult to quantify, automation faces greater challenges. For instance, real estate involves complex transactions requiring manual verification of legal documents, subjective property assessments, and compliance with diverse regulatory frameworks—making comprehensive automation via smart contracts more challenging.
· Facilitating Compliance
Compliance is a key aspect of tokenized assets. With the development of regulatory frameworks such as Know Your Customer (KYC), Anti-Money Laundering (AML), and Countering the Financing of Terrorism, a more secure environment has been created for digital finance and transactions. The underlying technology of tokenized assets makes compliance with these requirements more efficient and standardized through standardization and automated processes.
KYC and AML regulations can be directly encoded into the blockchain or individual asset transfer rules, enabling more efficient interactions. For example, when a customer establishes a relationship with a new financial institution, their identity information can be automatically transferred with their consent. Research on the impact of tokenization on banking infrastructure has shown positive results. By analyzing over 50 operational cost metrics, the study found that improved auditability and transaction transparency can reduce overall compliance costs by 30% to 50%.
· Automated Market Makers (AMMs)
Smart contracts are revolutionizing traditional market-making mechanisms through Automated Market Makers (AMMs). Traditional market makers provide liquidity by acting as buyers and sellers of securities, while AMMs take a different approach. They use smart contracts to automatically match buyers and sellers using asset pools provided by liquidity providers. These blockchain-embedded smart contracts algorithmically determine asset prices and manage asset pools. The automation features of AMMs significantly reduce costs and improve performance. Research has shown that compared to traditional systems, AMMs have significantly lower transaction costs, especially excelling in high-volume and low to medium volatility assets.
Risks and Costs of RWA Tokenization
Despite the many advantages that tokenized assets bring, their adoption still faces significant challenges. The main risks come from technological and regulatory considerations. Technology-related concerns include cybersecurity vulnerabilities, system scalability limitations, settlement processes, network stability, and efficiency issues. On the regulatory front, key issues involve AML compliance, governance frameworks, identity verification, and data protection and privacy. Researchers suggest that addressing digital asset regulatory issues should not be limited to just integrating new technology into existing frameworks. Instead, we should explore how to leverage blockchain technology and smart contracts to enhance regulatory compliance.
In addition to technological and regulatory challenges, investor behavior and market dynamics bring additional complexity. Achieving widespread adoption requires a significant amount of education and awareness efforts. Market risks include the potential overvaluation of assets due to speculative trading and increased price volatility due to the digital nature of these assets. Furthermore, the high energy consumption of blockchain consensus mechanisms has raised environmental concerns. To fully realize the advantages of tokenization in the financial sector, these multifaceted challenges must be addressed.
The transition to a tokenized financial system involves significant costs. Among the most notable expenses are those stemming from the infrastructure changes required to support blockchain and tokenization technology. Organizations need to invest in a secure, scalable blockchain platform, acquire specialized software to manage tokenized assets, and provide training to employees to adapt to these new systems. Integration costs are equally significant—there is a need to connect these new systems to existing financial infrastructure while maintaining security and operational integrity. Educational efforts to increase understanding and overcome skepticism also pose a significant direct and opportunity cost for governments. Lastly, the high energy consumption of blockchain consensus mechanisms presents a dual financial and environmental challenge.
Disclaimer: This article is for general information purposes only and does not constitute investment advice, recommendation, or an invitation to buy or sell any securities. This article should not be relied upon as the basis for any investment decision, nor should it be used as a basis for accounting, legal, tax, or investment advice. It is recommended that you consult your own advisors on legal, business, tax, or other matters related to any investment decision. Some information contained in this article may be from third-party sources, including portfolio companies of funds managed by Aquarius. The views expressed in this article are solely the author's personal opinions and do not necessarily reflect the position of Aquarius or its affiliates. These views may change at any time without notice and may not be updated.
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China's Central Bank and Eight Other Departments' Latest Regulatory Focus: Key Attention to RWA Tokenized Asset Risk
Foreword: Today, the People's Bank of China's website published the "Notice of the People's Bank of China, National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Ministry of Public Security, State Administration for Market Regulation, China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, China Securities Regulatory Commission, State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Further Preventing and Dealing with Risks Related to Virtual Currency and Others (Yinfa [2026] No. 42)", the latest regulatory requirements from the eight departments including the central bank, which are basically consistent with the regulatory requirements of recent years. The main focus of the regulation is on speculative activities such as virtual currency trading, exchanges, ICOs, overseas platform services, and this time, regulatory oversight of RWA has been added, explicitly prohibiting RWA tokenization, stablecoins (especially those pegged to the RMB). The following is the full text:
To the people's governments of all provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government, the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps:
Recently, there have been speculative activities related to virtual currency and Real-World Assets (RWA) tokenization, disrupting the economic and financial order and jeopardizing the property security of the people. In order to further prevent and address the risks related to virtual currency and Real-World Assets tokenization, effectively safeguard national security and social stability, in accordance with the "Law of the People's Republic of China on the People's Bank of China," "Law of the People's Republic of China on Commercial Banks," "Securities Law of the People's Republic of China," "Law of the People's Republic of China on Securities Investment Funds," "Law of the People's Republic of China on Futures and Derivatives," "Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China," "Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Administration of Renminbi," "Regulations on Prevention and Disposal of Illegal Fundraising," "Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Foreign Exchange Administration," "Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China," and other provisions, after reaching consensus with the Cyberspace Administration of China, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate, and with the approval of the State Council, the relevant matters are notified as follows:
(I) Virtual currency does not possess the legal status equivalent to fiat currency. Virtual currencies such as Bitcoin, Ether, Tether, etc., have the main characteristics of being issued by non-monetary authorities, using encryption technology and distributed ledger or similar technology, existing in digital form, etc. They do not have legal tender status, should not and cannot be circulated and used as currency in the market.
The business activities related to virtual currency are classified as illegal financial activities. The exchange of fiat currency and virtual currency within the territory, exchange of virtual currencies, acting as a central counterparty in buying and selling virtual currencies, providing information intermediary and pricing services for virtual currency transactions, token issuance financing, and trading of virtual currency-related financial products, etc., fall under illegal financial activities, such as suspected illegal issuance of token vouchers, unauthorized public issuance of securities, illegal operation of securities and futures business, illegal fundraising, etc., are strictly prohibited across the board and resolutely banned in accordance with the law. Overseas entities and individuals are not allowed to provide virtual currency-related services to domestic entities in any form.
A stablecoin pegged to a fiat currency indirectly fulfills some functions of the fiat currency in circulation. Without the consent of relevant authorities in accordance with the law and regulations, any domestic or foreign entity or individual is not allowed to issue a RMB-pegged stablecoin overseas.
（II）Tokenization of Real-World Assets refers to the use of encryption technology and distributed ledger or similar technologies to transform ownership rights, income rights, etc., of assets into tokens (tokens) or other interests or bond certificates with token (token) characteristics, and carry out issuance and trading activities.
Engaging in the tokenization of real-world assets domestically, as well as providing related intermediary, information technology services, etc., which are suspected of illegal issuance of token vouchers, unauthorized public offering of securities, illegal operation of securities and futures business, illegal fundraising, and other illegal financial activities, shall be prohibited; except for relevant business activities carried out with the approval of the competent authorities in accordance with the law and regulations and relying on specific financial infrastructures. Overseas entities and individuals are not allowed to illegally provide services related to the tokenization of real-world assets to domestic entities in any form.
(III) Inter-agency Coordination. The People's Bank of China, together with the National Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the Ministry of Public Security, the State Administration for Market Regulation, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, and other departments, will improve the work mechanism, strengthen coordination with the Cyberspace Administration of China, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate, coordinate efforts, and overall guide regions to carry out risk prevention and disposal of virtual currency-related illegal financial activities.
The China Securities Regulatory Commission, together with the National Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the Ministry of Public Security, the People's Bank of China, the State Administration for Market Regulation, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, and other departments, will improve the work mechanism, strengthen coordination with the Cyberspace Administration of China, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate, coordinate efforts, and overall guide regions to carry out risk prevention and disposal of illegal financial activities related to the tokenization of real-world assets.
(IV) Strengthening Local Implementation. The people's governments at the provincial level are overall responsible for the prevention and disposal of risks related to virtual currencies and the tokenization of real-world assets in their respective administrative regions. The specific leading department is the local financial regulatory department, with participation from branches and dispatched institutions of the State Council's financial regulatory department, telecommunications regulators, public security, market supervision, and other departments, in coordination with cyberspace departments, courts, and procuratorates, to improve the normalization of the work mechanism, effectively connect with the relevant work mechanisms of central departments, form a cooperative and coordinated working pattern between central and local governments, effectively prevent and properly handle risks related to virtual currencies and the tokenization of real-world assets, and maintain economic and financial order and social stability.
(5) Enhanced Risk Monitoring. The People's Bank of China, China Securities Regulatory Commission, National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Ministry of Public Security, State Administration of Foreign Exchange, Cyberspace Administration of China, and other departments continue to improve monitoring techniques and system support, enhance cross-departmental data analysis and sharing, establish sound information sharing and cross-validation mechanisms, promptly grasp the risk situation of activities related to virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization. Local governments at all levels give full play to the role of local monitoring and early warning mechanisms. Local financial regulatory authorities, together with branches and agencies of the State Council's financial regulatory authorities, as well as departments of cyberspace and public security, ensure effective connection between online monitoring, offline investigation, and fund tracking, efficiently and accurately identify activities related to virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization, promptly share risk information, improve early warning information dissemination, verification, and rapid response mechanisms.
(6) Strengthened Oversight of Financial Institutions, Intermediaries, and Technology Service Providers. Financial institutions (including non-bank payment institutions) are prohibited from providing account opening, fund transfer, and clearing services for virtual currency-related business activities, issuing and selling financial products related to virtual currency, including virtual currency and related financial products in the scope of collateral, conducting insurance business related to virtual currency, or including virtual currency in the scope of insurance liability. Financial institutions (including non-bank payment institutions) are prohibited from providing custody, clearing, and settlement services for unauthorized real-world asset tokenization-related business and related financial products. Relevant intermediary institutions and information technology service providers are prohibited from providing intermediary, technical, or other services for unauthorized real-world asset tokenization-related businesses and related financial products.
(7) Enhanced Management of Internet Information Content and Access. Internet enterprises are prohibited from providing online business venues, commercial displays, marketing, advertising, or paid traffic diversion services for virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization-related business activities. Upon discovering clues of illegal activities, they should promptly report to relevant departments and provide technical support and assistance for related investigations and inquiries. Based on the clues transferred by the financial regulatory authorities, the cyberspace administration, telecommunications authorities, and public security departments should promptly close and deal with websites, mobile applications (including mini-programs), and public accounts engaged in virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization-related business activities in accordance with the law.
(8) Strengthened Entity Registration and Advertisement Management. Market supervision departments strengthen entity registration and management, and enterprise and individual business registrations must not contain terms such as "virtual currency," "virtual asset," "cryptocurrency," "crypto asset," "stablecoin," "real-world asset tokenization," or "RWA" in their names or business scopes. Market supervision departments, together with financial regulatory authorities, legally enhance the supervision of advertisements related to virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization, promptly investigating and handling relevant illegal advertisements.
（IX） Continued Rectification of Virtual Currency Mining Activities. The National Development and Reform Commission, together with relevant departments, strictly controls virtual currency mining activities, continuously promotes the rectification of virtual currency mining activities. The people's governments of various provinces take overall responsibility for the rectification of "mining" within their respective administrative regions. In accordance with the requirements of the National Development and Reform Commission and other departments in the "Notice on the Rectification of Virtual Currency Mining Activities" (NDRC Energy-saving Building [2021] No. 1283) and the provisions of the "Guidance Catalog for Industrial Structure Adjustment (2024 Edition)," a comprehensive review, investigation, and closure of existing virtual currency mining projects are conducted, new mining projects are strictly prohibited, and mining machine production enterprises are strictly prohibited from providing mining machine sales and other services within the country.
（X） Severe Crackdown on Related Illegal Financial Activities. Upon discovering clues to illegal financial activities related to virtual currency and the tokenization of real-world assets, local financial regulatory authorities, branches of the State Council's financial regulatory authorities, and other relevant departments promptly investigate, determine, and properly handle the issues in accordance with the law, and seriously hold the relevant entities and individuals legally responsible. Those suspected of crimes are transferred to the judicial authorities for processing according to the law.
（XI） Severe Crackdown on Related Illegal and Criminal Activities. The Ministry of Public Security, the People's Bank of China, the State Administration for Market Regulation, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, as well as judicial and procuratorial organs, in accordance with their respective responsibilities, rigorously crack down on illegal and criminal activities related to virtual currency, the tokenization of real-world assets, such as fraud, money laundering, illegal business operations, pyramid schemes, illegal fundraising, and other illegal and criminal activities carried out under the guise of virtual currency, the tokenization of real-world assets, etc.
（XII） Strengthen Industry Self-discipline. Relevant industry associations should enhance membership management and policy advocacy, based on their own responsibilities, advocate and urge member units to resist illegal financial activities related to virtual currency and the tokenization of real-world assets. Member units that violate regulatory policies and industry self-discipline rules are to be disciplined in accordance with relevant self-regulatory management regulations. By leveraging various industry infrastructure, conduct risk monitoring related to virtual currency, the tokenization of real-world assets, and promptly transfer issue clues to relevant departments.
（XIII） Without the approval of relevant departments in accordance with the law and regulations, domestic entities and foreign entities controlled by them may not issue virtual currency overseas.
（XIV） Domestic entities engaging directly or indirectly in overseas external debt-based tokenization of real-world assets, or conducting asset securitization activities abroad based on domestic ownership rights, income rights, etc. (hereinafter referred to as domestic equity), should be strictly regulated in accordance with the principles of "same business, same risk, same rules." The National Development and Reform Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, and other relevant departments regulate it according to their respective responsibilities. For other forms of overseas real-world asset tokenization activities based on domestic equity by domestic entities, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, together with relevant departments, supervise according to their division of responsibilities. Without the consent and filing of relevant departments, no unit or individual may engage in the above-mentioned business.
(15) Overseas subsidiaries and branches of domestic financial institutions providing Real World Asset Tokenization-related services overseas shall do so legally and prudently. They shall have professional personnel and systems in place to effectively mitigate business risks, strictly implement customer onboarding, suitability management, anti-money laundering requirements, and incorporate them into the domestic financial institutions' compliance and risk management system. Intermediaries and information technology service providers offering Real World Asset Tokenization services abroad based on domestic equity or conducting Real World Asset Tokenization business in the form of overseas debt for domestic entities directly or indirectly venturing abroad must strictly comply with relevant laws and regulations. They should establish and improve relevant compliance and internal control systems in accordance with relevant normative requirements, strengthen business and risk control, and report the business developments to the relevant regulatory authorities for approval or filing.
(16) Strengthen organizational leadership and overall coordination. All departments and regions should attach great importance to the prevention of risks related to virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization, strengthen organizational leadership, clarify work responsibilities, form a long-term effective working mechanism with centralized coordination, local implementation, and shared responsibilities, maintain high pressure, dynamically monitor risks, effectively prevent and mitigate risks in an orderly and efficient manner, legally protect the property security of the people, and make every effort to maintain economic and financial order and social stability.
(17) Widely carry out publicity and education. All departments, regions, and industry associations should make full use of various media and other communication channels to disseminate information through legal and policy interpretation, analysis of typical cases, and education on investment risks, etc. They should promote the illegality and harm of virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization-related businesses and their manifestations, fully alert to potential risks and hidden dangers, and enhance public awareness and identification capabilities for risk prevention.
(18) Engaging in illegal financial activities related to virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization in violation of this notice, as well as providing services for virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization-related businesses, shall be punished in accordance with relevant regulations. If it constitutes a crime, criminal liability shall be pursued according to the law. For domestic entities and individuals who knowingly or should have known that overseas entities illegally provided virtual currency or Real World Asset Tokenization-related services to domestic entities and still assisted them, relevant responsibilities shall be pursued according to the law. If it constitutes a crime, criminal liability shall be pursued according to the law.
(19) If any unit or individual invests in virtual currencies, Real World Asset Tokens, and related financial products against public order and good customs, the relevant civil legal actions shall be invalid, and any resulting losses shall be borne by them. If there are suspicions of disrupting financial order and jeopardizing financial security, the relevant departments shall deal with them according to the law.
This notice shall enter into force upon the date of its issuance. The People's Bank of China and ten other departments' "Notice on Further Preventing and Dealing with the Risks of Virtual Currency Trading Speculation" (Yinfa [2021] No. 237) is hereby repealed.
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Foreword: Today, the People's Bank of China's website published the "Notice of the People's Bank of China, National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Ministry of Public Security, State Administration for Market Regulation, China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, China Securities Regulatory Commission, State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Further Preventing and Dealing with Risks Related to Virtual Currency and Others (Yinfa [2026] No. 42)", the latest regulatory requirements from the eight departments including the central bank, which are basically consistent with the regulatory requirements of recent years. The main focus of the regulation is on speculative activities such as virtual currency trading, exchanges, ICOs, overseas platform services, and this time, regulatory oversight of RWA has been added, explicitly prohibiting RWA tokenization, stablecoins (especially those pegged to the RMB). The following is the full text:
To the people's governments of all provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government, the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps:
Recently, there have been speculative activities related to virtual currency and Real-World Assets (RWA) tokenization, disrupting the economic and financial order and jeopardizing the property security of the people. In order to further prevent and address the risks related to virtual currency and Real-World Assets tokenization, effectively safeguard national security and social stability, in accordance with the "Law of the People's Republic of China on the People's Bank of China," "Law of the People's Republic of China on Commercial Banks," "Securities Law of the People's Republic of China," "Law of the People's Republic of China on Securities Investment Funds," "Law of the People's Republic of China on Futures and Derivatives," "Cybersecurity Law of the People's Republic of China," "Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Administration of Renminbi," "Regulations on Prevention and Disposal of Illegal Fundraising," "Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Foreign Exchange Administration," "Telecommunications Regulations of the People's Republic of China," and other provisions, after reaching consensus with the Cyberspace Administration of China, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate, and with the approval of the State Council, the relevant matters are notified as follows:
(I) Virtual currency does not possess the legal status equivalent to fiat currency. Virtual currencies such as Bitcoin, Ether, Tether, etc., have the main characteristics of being issued by non-monetary authorities, using encryption technology and distributed ledger or similar technology, existing in digital form, etc. They do not have legal tender status, should not and cannot be circulated and used as currency in the market.
The business activities related to virtual currency are classified as illegal financial activities. The exchange of fiat currency and virtual currency within the territory, exchange of virtual currencies, acting as a central counterparty in buying and selling virtual currencies, providing information intermediary and pricing services for virtual currency transactions, token issuance financing, and trading of virtual currency-related financial products, etc., fall under illegal financial activities, such as suspected illegal issuance of token vouchers, unauthorized public issuance of securities, illegal operation of securities and futures business, illegal fundraising, etc., are strictly prohibited across the board and resolutely banned in accordance with the law. Overseas entities and individuals are not allowed to provide virtual currency-related services to domestic entities in any form.
A stablecoin pegged to a fiat currency indirectly fulfills some functions of the fiat currency in circulation. Without the consent of relevant authorities in accordance with the law and regulations, any domestic or foreign entity or individual is not allowed to issue a RMB-pegged stablecoin overseas.
（II）Tokenization of Real-World Assets refers to the use of encryption technology and distributed ledger or similar technologies to transform ownership rights, income rights, etc., of assets into tokens (tokens) or other interests or bond certificates with token (token) characteristics, and carry out issuance and trading activities.
Engaging in the tokenization of real-world assets domestically, as well as providing related intermediary, information technology services, etc., which are suspected of illegal issuance of token vouchers, unauthorized public offering of securities, illegal operation of securities and futures business, illegal fundraising, and other illegal financial activities, shall be prohibited; except for relevant business activities carried out with the approval of the competent authorities in accordance with the law and regulations and relying on specific financial infrastructures. Overseas entities and individuals are not allowed to illegally provide services related to the tokenization of real-world assets to domestic entities in any form.
(III) Inter-agency Coordination. The People's Bank of China, together with the National Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the Ministry of Public Security, the State Administration for Market Regulation, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, and other departments, will improve the work mechanism, strengthen coordination with the Cyberspace Administration of China, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate, coordinate efforts, and overall guide regions to carry out risk prevention and disposal of virtual currency-related illegal financial activities.
The China Securities Regulatory Commission, together with the National Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the Ministry of Public Security, the People's Bank of China, the State Administration for Market Regulation, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, and other departments, will improve the work mechanism, strengthen coordination with the Cyberspace Administration of China, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate, coordinate efforts, and overall guide regions to carry out risk prevention and disposal of illegal financial activities related to the tokenization of real-world assets.
(IV) Strengthening Local Implementation. The people's governments at the provincial level are overall responsible for the prevention and disposal of risks related to virtual currencies and the tokenization of real-world assets in their respective administrative regions. The specific leading department is the local financial regulatory department, with participation from branches and dispatched institutions of the State Council's financial regulatory department, telecommunications regulators, public security, market supervision, and other departments, in coordination with cyberspace departments, courts, and procuratorates, to improve the normalization of the work mechanism, effectively connect with the relevant work mechanisms of central departments, form a cooperative and coordinated working pattern between central and local governments, effectively prevent and properly handle risks related to virtual currencies and the tokenization of real-world assets, and maintain economic and financial order and social stability.
(5) Enhanced Risk Monitoring. The People's Bank of China, China Securities Regulatory Commission, National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Ministry of Public Security, State Administration of Foreign Exchange, Cyberspace Administration of China, and other departments continue to improve monitoring techniques and system support, enhance cross-departmental data analysis and sharing, establish sound information sharing and cross-validation mechanisms, promptly grasp the risk situation of activities related to virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization. Local governments at all levels give full play to the role of local monitoring and early warning mechanisms. Local financial regulatory authorities, together with branches and agencies of the State Council's financial regulatory authorities, as well as departments of cyberspace and public security, ensure effective connection between online monitoring, offline investigation, and fund tracking, efficiently and accurately identify activities related to virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization, promptly share risk information, improve early warning information dissemination, verification, and rapid response mechanisms.
(6) Strengthened Oversight of Financial Institutions, Intermediaries, and Technology Service Providers. Financial institutions (including non-bank payment institutions) are prohibited from providing account opening, fund transfer, and clearing services for virtual currency-related business activities, issuing and selling financial products related to virtual currency, including virtual currency and related financial products in the scope of collateral, conducting insurance business related to virtual currency, or including virtual currency in the scope of insurance liability. Financial institutions (including non-bank payment institutions) are prohibited from providing custody, clearing, and settlement services for unauthorized real-world asset tokenization-related business and related financial products. Relevant intermediary institutions and information technology service providers are prohibited from providing intermediary, technical, or other services for unauthorized real-world asset tokenization-related businesses and related financial products.
(7) Enhanced Management of Internet Information Content and Access. Internet enterprises are prohibited from providing online business venues, commercial displays, marketing, advertising, or paid traffic diversion services for virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization-related business activities. Upon discovering clues of illegal activities, they should promptly report to relevant departments and provide technical support and assistance for related investigations and inquiries. Based on the clues transferred by the financial regulatory authorities, the cyberspace administration, telecommunications authorities, and public security departments should promptly close and deal with websites, mobile applications (including mini-programs), and public accounts engaged in virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization-related business activities in accordance with the law.
(8) Strengthened Entity Registration and Advertisement Management. Market supervision departments strengthen entity registration and management, and enterprise and individual business registrations must not contain terms such as "virtual currency," "virtual asset," "cryptocurrency," "crypto asset," "stablecoin," "real-world asset tokenization," or "RWA" in their names or business scopes. Market supervision departments, together with financial regulatory authorities, legally enhance the supervision of advertisements related to virtual currency and real-world asset tokenization, promptly investigating and handling relevant illegal advertisements.
（IX） Continued Rectification of Virtual Currency Mining Activities. The National Development and Reform Commission, together with relevant departments, strictly controls virtual currency mining activities, continuously promotes the rectification of virtual currency mining activities. The people's governments of various provinces take overall responsibility for the rectification of "mining" within their respective administrative regions. In accordance with the requirements of the National Development and Reform Commission and other departments in the "Notice on the Rectification of Virtual Currency Mining Activities" (NDRC Energy-saving Building [2021] No. 1283) and the provisions of the "Guidance Catalog for Industrial Structure Adjustment (2024 Edition)," a comprehensive review, investigation, and closure of existing virtual currency mining projects are conducted, new mining projects are strictly prohibited, and mining machine production enterprises are strictly prohibited from providing mining machine sales and other services within the country.
（X） Severe Crackdown on Related Illegal Financial Activities. Upon discovering clues to illegal financial activities related to virtual currency and the tokenization of real-world assets, local financial regulatory authorities, branches of the State Council's financial regulatory authorities, and other relevant departments promptly investigate, determine, and properly handle the issues in accordance with the law, and seriously hold the relevant entities and individuals legally responsible. Those suspected of crimes are transferred to the judicial authorities for processing according to the law.
（XI） Severe Crackdown on Related Illegal and Criminal Activities. The Ministry of Public Security, the People's Bank of China, the State Administration for Market Regulation, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, as well as judicial and procuratorial organs, in accordance with their respective responsibilities, rigorously crack down on illegal and criminal activities related to virtual currency, the tokenization of real-world assets, such as fraud, money laundering, illegal business operations, pyramid schemes, illegal fundraising, and other illegal and criminal activities carried out under the guise of virtual currency, the tokenization of real-world assets, etc.
（XII） Strengthen Industry Self-discipline. Relevant industry associations should enhance membership management and policy advocacy, based on their own responsibilities, advocate and urge member units to resist illegal financial activities related to virtual currency and the tokenization of real-world assets. Member units that violate regulatory policies and industry self-discipline rules are to be disciplined in accordance with relevant self-regulatory management regulations. By leveraging various industry infrastructure, conduct risk monitoring related to virtual currency, the tokenization of real-world assets, and promptly transfer issue clues to relevant departments.
（XIII） Without the approval of relevant departments in accordance with the law and regulations, domestic entities and foreign entities controlled by them may not issue virtual currency overseas.
（XIV） Domestic entities engaging directly or indirectly in overseas external debt-based tokenization of real-world assets, or conducting asset securitization activities abroad based on domestic ownership rights, income rights, etc. (hereinafter referred to as domestic equity), should be strictly regulated in accordance with the principles of "same business, same risk, same rules." The National Development and Reform Commission, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the State Administration of Foreign Exchange, and other relevant departments regulate it according to their respective responsibilities. For other forms of overseas real-world asset tokenization activities based on domestic equity by domestic entities, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, together with relevant departments, supervise according to their division of responsibilities. Without the consent and filing of relevant departments, no unit or individual may engage in the above-mentioned business.
(15) Overseas subsidiaries and branches of domestic financial institutions providing Real World Asset Tokenization-related services overseas shall do so legally and prudently. They shall have professional personnel and systems in place to effectively mitigate business risks, strictly implement customer onboarding, suitability management, anti-money laundering requirements, and incorporate them into the domestic financial institutions' compliance and risk management system. Intermediaries and information technology service providers offering Real World Asset Tokenization services abroad based on domestic equity or conducting Real World Asset Tokenization business in the form of overseas debt for domestic entities directly or indirectly venturing abroad must strictly comply with relevant laws and regulations. They should establish and improve relevant compliance and internal control systems in accordance with relevant normative requirements, strengthen business and risk control, and report the business developments to the relevant regulatory authorities for approval or filing.
(16) Strengthen organizational leadership and overall coordination. All departments and regions should attach great importance to the prevention of risks related to virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization, strengthen organizational leadership, clarify work responsibilities, form a long-term effective working mechanism with centralized coordination, local implementation, and shared responsibilities, maintain high pressure, dynamically monitor risks, effectively prevent and mitigate risks in an orderly and efficient manner, legally protect the property security of the people, and make every effort to maintain economic and financial order and social stability.
(17) Widely carry out publicity and education. All departments, regions, and industry associations should make full use of various media and other communication channels to disseminate information through legal and policy interpretation, analysis of typical cases, and education on investment risks, etc. They should promote the illegality and harm of virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization-related businesses and their manifestations, fully alert to potential risks and hidden dangers, and enhance public awareness and identification capabilities for risk prevention.
(18) Engaging in illegal financial activities related to virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization in violation of this notice, as well as providing services for virtual currencies and Real World Asset Tokenization-related businesses, shall be punished in accordance with relevant regulations. If it constitutes a crime, criminal liability shall be pursued according to the law. For domestic entities and individuals who knowingly or should have known that overseas entities illegally provided virtual currency or Real World Asset Tokenization-related services to domestic entities and still assisted them, relevant responsibilities shall be pursued according to the law. If it constitutes a crime, criminal liability shall be pursued according to the law.
(19) If any unit or individual invests in virtual currencies, Real World Asset Tokens, and related financial products against public order and good customs, the relevant civil legal actions shall be invalid, and any resulting losses shall be borne by them. If there are suspicions of disrupting financial order and jeopardizing financial security, the relevant departments shall deal with them according to the law.
This notice shall enter into force upon the date of its issuance. The People's Bank of China and ten other departments' "Notice on Further Preventing and Dealing with the Risks of Virtual Currency Trading Speculation" (Yinfa [2021] No. 237) is hereby repealed.
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